1. Discuss the origins of nationalism. What forces or factors energized nationalism at the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century? Compare and contrast the development of nationalism in Germany and France. ?????????????

Nationalism Origins:

·        Arose out of awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs.

o       This constitutes a “nation”, and rather than a dynasty, city-state, or political unit, becomes the individual’s primary political loyalty

Forces or Factors that energized nationalism at the end of 18^th/beginning of 19^th century:

·        Did not become a popular force for change until the French Revolution

o       French aroused nationalism by making themselves hated oppressors: thus arousing the patriotism of others in opposition of French nationalism; and by showing the people of Europe what nationalism was and what a nation in arms could do

·        Nationalists began to believe that each nationality should have its own government

Developments in Germany:

·        Divided Germany wanted national unity in a German nation-state with one central government

·        German nationalists focused on Austria and Prussia as the only two states powerful enough to dominate German affairs

·        By 1853 all but Austria joined the Prussian-dominated customs union; which was lead by King William I

o       Although it was Otto von Bismarck who skillfully combined domestic policies with wars with Denmark, Austria, and France to achieve creation of the German Empire in 1871

Developments in France:

·        Nationalism developed during the French Revolution in the French people’s emphasis on brotherhood (fraternité) and solidarity against other peoples

·        French nationalism made possible the mass armies of the revolutionary and Napoleonic eras

·        Napoleon’s spread of the principles of the French Revolution unintentionally brought a spread of nationalism as well

·        Napoleon III used Nationalism to distract people from their poor lives

 

2. How do you account for the appeal of socialist ideas? What is socialism? How did Marx's message differ from that of earlier socialist thinkers? How did socialists seek to organize the working classes in Europe (discuss the case of one country)?

Explain the appeal of socialist ideas:

·        Gave enormous confidence that you were on the winning side

·         

Socialism is:

·        An ideology that calls for collective or government ownership of the means of production and the distribution of goods

·        Emphasizes economic cooperation over economic competition

·        Advocates placing at least some of the means of production (and at least some of the distribution of goods and services) into collective or cooperative ownership

Difference between Marx and earlier socialist thinkers:

·        The ideology of socialism grew up hand in hand with the rise of the organized labor during the Industrial Revolution

·        Began as the product of political theorists or intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into the social conditions and believed that human cooperation was superior to the competition that characterized early industrial capitalism

·        To later Marxists, those ideas were impractical dreams and they condescendingly labeled the theorists utopian socialists: term still endures

·        Utopian socialists were against private property and the competitive spirit of early industrial capitalism – by eliminating those things, they thought a better environment for humanity could be achieved

·        Marx said it was traceable to the dawn of human social history 

o       It was a natural trait of human nature and early human social models

·        Marx saw socialism as a phase of human society that would follow capitalism and precede communism

o       Marx’s message was antinationalist

·        Share the common belief that feudal and capitalist societies are run for the benefit of a small economic elite and that society should be run for the common good

Socialists wanted to organize the working classes in Europe (pick one country) by:

·        Frenchman, Louis Blanc (1813-1882), offered a socialist approach to a better society.

·        Maintained that social problems could be solved by government assistance.

·        Denouncing competition as the main cause of economic evils of his day, he called for the establishment of workshops that would manufacture goods for public sale

·        The state would finance these workshops, but the workers would own and operate them

 

3. What was Bonapartism? How does it function as a political system? What are its strengths? What are its liabilities or risks??????????????How were the reigns of Napoleon I and Napoleon III linked?  

Bonapartism is:

·        A form of government dictatorship using plebiscites, but you must seek greater and greater military success to keep power

·        Essence of the system were plebiscites

It functions as a political system with:

·        Fake elections, no real choice between candidates, an unknown poll of approval or disapproval

Strengths:

·         

Liabilities and/or Risks:

·        Used selective reformism to appoint the radicalism of the popular class

Connection between Napoleon I and Napoleon III reigns:

·        Napoleon III used same tactics as his uncle, Bonapartism, in which fake elections were held called plebiscites

·        He established a rule based on Napoleon I’s methods

·        Napoleon I and Napoleon III used their military authority to oppose the revolution and seize power from the revolutionaries

o       Then used selective reformism to appoint the discrimination of the popular class

·        Both wanted France to be the principal authority of Europe

·        Both have been thought to want to rule the world

·        Both were captured

·        Marx judged both Napoleon I and Napoleon III of having corrupted revolutions in France

 

4. What caused the "new imperialism" at the end of the nineteenth century? How was it different from earlier forms of imperialism? Which of its causes was most important, and why?

            Approximately from Franco-Persian War – World War I (1871-1914)

            This period is distinguished by a unique pursuit of what has been termed “empire for empire’s sake,” aggressive competition for overseas territorial possessions and the emergence in colonizing countries of the principle of racial superiority, which denied the qualification of subjugated people for self-government

Cause for “new imperialism” at the end of 19^th century:

·        Accumulation theory: adopted by J.A. Hobson-

o       Accumulation of surplus capital during and after the Industrial Revolution restricted opportunities at home

o       Economic motivation: supply and demand; great demand for natural resources and other products not found in Western countries

o       Drove financial interests to seek more profitable investments in less-developed lands w/ lower labor costs, unexploited raw material, and little competition

o       economic motivation for imperialism

·        World-System theory: approached by Immanuel Wallerstein-

o       Saw imperialism as part of a general, gradual extension of resource investments from the “core" of the industrial countries to the less developed “periphery.”(border)

o       Protectionism and formal empires were the major tools of “semi- peripheral” (semi-marginal) newly states, such as Germany, who were seeking to take over Britain’s position at the “core” of the global capitalist system

Difference between “new imperialism” and earlier forms:

·        Imperialism was used to describe different forms of political control by a greater power over less powerful territories or nationalities

·        Later, imperialism was used to describe the economic and political power of "monopolistic finance capital" (full control over economic assets) in the most advanced countries, and its acquirement — and enforcement through the state — of power of the means

o       Hence, the profits of production in less developed regions

·        New Imperialism contained both concepts along with the adoption of ultra-nationalist and racial supremacist ideologies, the period saw a shift to pre-emptive colonial expansion, fuelled by the imposition of tariff barriers aimed at excluding economic rivals from markets.

Most Important causes:

·        Existence of competitive nation-states after 1870 was undoubtedly a major determinant in the growth

Why:

·        European affairs grew tense and heightened competition led European states to acquire colonies abroad that provided ports and coaling stations to their navies

o       Failure to enter the race for colonies was perceived as weakness and was unacceptable to an aspiring great power

·        Closely tied to nationalism:

o       Colonies were a source of international prestige

·        Also closely tied to social Darwinism and racism:

o       Social Darwinists believed that in the struggle between nations, the fit are victorious and survive

o       Superior races must dominate inferior races by military force to show how strong and masculine they are

·        Some Europeans took a more religious or humanitarian approach when they argued that Europeans had a moral responsibility to civilize ignorant peoples

o       Known as the “white man’s burden” – another form of racism

 
6. What were the most important political consequences of the Second Industrial Revolution? Why did it take place? How did the Second Industrial Revolution differ from the First Industrial Revolution?

Most Important Political Consequences of the 2^nd Industrial Revolution:

·        Long Depression

·        So-called “New Imperialism”

·        Germany came to replace Britain as primary industrial nation

Reasons for happening:

·        Resulted in the "mass society"

o       Involved significant developments within the chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel industries.

·        By 1870, the global market was already saturated with manufactured goods.

o       Increasing production compounded the problem and was a factor leading up to the Long Depression and the so-called "New Imperialism"

·        Germany, having industrialized after Britain, was able to model its factories after those of Britain thus saving a substantial amount of capital, effort, and time. While Germany made use of the latest technological concepts, the British continued to use expensive and outdated technology and therefore were unable (or unwilling) to afford the fruits of their own scientific progress.

·        In the development of science and pure research, the Germans invested more heavily than the British did.

·        The German cartel system, being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of fluid capital.

Differences between 2^nd and 1^st Industrial Revolutions:

·        1^st Revolution began with the introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered automated machinery (primarily in textile manufacturing). The technological and economic progress of the Industrial Revolution gained momentum with the introduction of steam-powered ships, boats and railways.

·        2^nd Revolution began with cheaply mass-produce steel, and included the chemical industries, petroleum refining and distribution, electrical industries. These industrializations created the first giant industrial corporations with often nearly global international operations and interests.

·        1^st Revolution had given rise to textiles, railroads, iron, and coal

·        2^nd Revolution led the way to new industrial frontiers with steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum

 
7. Discuss how Absolutism changed Europe. Why did Absolutism develop????????? Discuss one example of successful Absolutism and one example of failed Absolutism.

Ways Absolutism changed Europe:

·        New European states were organized with the principle of the royal crown/family, not nationality

·        The king is the absolutist monarch of the states

5 Things Needed in an Absolutist Monarch:

·        Collect taxes: tried to centralize taxation

·        Foreign policy: fight wars and mercantilism

·        Army: warriors and knights are of the past

·        Bureaucracy: Burghers must be loyal to the king

·        Ideology to justify absolutism: establish strong sovereign state

Reasons why Absolutism developed:

·        It promised an end to devastating civil wars and could put an end to corruption by the aristocracy, and restore attention to the Church's moral codes.

·        Having nothing to gain but a soul to lose, the theory goes; the King was a far better figure to enforce an ethical code than social climbers or newly rich nobles.

Successful Absolutism:

·        France during the reign of Louis XIV

o       French culture, language, and manners reached into all levels of European society

o       French diplomacy and wars shaped the political affairs of western and central Europe

·        Kings and Queens are Key to be successful

Failed Absolutism:

·        Poland

o       The Enlightenment in Poland fostered a growing national movement to repair the state

o       However, the process of reforms ceased with the partitions (separations) of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria

o       1772- lost about 30% land and 50% population

o       Torn apart by neighbors and torn off the map; ultimately dissolved

 

???????? 8. Was Napoleon Bonaparte an Absolutist ruler in practice and in his ideology? Discuss the three main reasons for your verdict.

Napoleon was/was not an Absolutist ruler in practice and ideology:

·        Napoleon was an absolute ruler in practice

·        Napoleon was not an absolute ruler in ideology

·        Napoleon was considered to have been one of the “enlightened monarchs”

3 Main Reasons and Explanations:

·        He was devoid of any personal faith and regarded religion as nothing more than a convenience

o       Example: In Egypt, he called himself a Muslim; in France he was Catholic

·        He saw it essential to come to terms with the Catholic church in order to stabilize his government

o       He gave the pope little control over the French Catholic Church; even though the pope gained the right to dispose French bishops, the state preserved the right to nominate bishops

o       Catholicism was not reestablished as the state religion; Napoleon was only willing to recognize it as the religion of a majority of the French people

 

9. Why did Karl Marx predict that the Industrial Revolution would lead to political revolution and the triumph of the working class (proletariat)? Discuss two specific events or developments between 1850 and 1914 and whether they supported or undercut Marx's prediction.????????????

·        Industrial Revolution marked a huge historical break between traditional agricultural societies and industrial civilization

·        Marked a new power that reshaped society, the physical landscape, etc.

·        Industrial Revolution was not just about technology and machines; it was a combination of issues that launched the Industrial Revolution and constant rapid movement

o       Some issues include: new management and organization, new uses of people and technology for more capital, and new work setting

Marx predicted the Industrial Revolution would lead to political revolution because:

·        He saw the relationship between the bourgeoisie (the owners and management) and the proletariat (the workers) classes as, for the most part, parasitic

·        The bourgeoisie were depending on the proletariat’s to do all of the labor and were not doing anything in return

·        Since the bourgeoisie always under compensated the proletariats for their actual labor value (according to the labor theory of value), it allowed the bourgeoisie to grow absurdly wealthy through nothing more than the mistreatment of the proletarians' labor.

Predicted triumph of working class (proletariat) because:

·        They will become class conscience and revolt against the bourgeoisie

·        The working class would then take over the existing capitalist state, turning it into a workers revolutionary state, which would put in place the democratic structures necessary, and then “wither away”

1^st Specific development between 1850-1914:

·        1886- Gottlieb Daimler invented a light engine

o       Key to development of the automobile

Support or Undercut Marx’s prediction:

·         

2^nd Specific development between 1850-1914:

·        Thomas Edison invented the lightbulb

o       Briton Joseph Swan opened homes and cities to illumination by electric lights

Support or Undercut Marx’s prediction:

·         

 

10. How do you account for the dynamic course of the French Revolution? What influence did Enlightenment ideas have on this event (be specific)? Who were the revolutionaries?????, and what did they want? Ultimately, was their venture a success or a failure???????

Explanations for forceful/self-motivated course of the French Revolution:

·        A new way of thinking sparked the revolution

·        Nationalism was a new way of thinking

o       Arose out of the awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs; which constitutes a “nation”, and their nation becomes the individual’s primary political loyalty

·        Resentment of royal absolutism

·        Resentment of the seigniorial system by peasants, wage earners, and a rising bourgeoisie.

·        The rise of enlightenment ideals.

·        An unmanageable national debt, both caused by and exacerbating the burden of a grossly inequitable system of taxation.

·        Food scarcity in the years immediately before the revolution.

·        The rise of an ambitious bourgeoisie and, to a lesser extent, of the lower classes

Influences due to the Enlightenment:

·        Represents the Enlightenment through a violent and messianic lens, particularly during the brief period of Jacobin dictatorship.

·        The desire for rationality in government lead to the attempt to end the Catholic Church, and indeed Christianity, in France, change the calendar, clock, measuring system, monetary system and legal system along lines suggested by what was seen as an orderly rationality.

·        It also took the ideas of social and economic equality further than any other major state to that time.

·        Metric System

Revolutionaries were:

·         

Revolutionaries wanted:

·        A revolution and seeked to promote, encourage, or lead the creation of one

Ultimate Success or Ultimate Failure:

·         

 

11. What were the most important problems facing the Congress of Vienna after Napoleon's defeat? How did the Congress deal with these problems? Was the system a success or a failure in the long term?

            In 1814, before Napoleon was defeated, his four major enemies – Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia – agreed to remain united and not only defeat, but ensure peace after the war.

Important Problems the Congress of Vienna faced after Napoleon’s defeat:

·        Craft a new order for of Europe after the Napoleonic wars and the defeat of France

·        Keep peace after the war

Congress dealt with them by:

·        Planned to restore the Boubon monarchy to France, with Louis XVIII, in order to restore and preserve traditional institutions

·        Prince Klemens von Metternich, foreign minister of Austria, felt that nationalism was threatening him and his traditional elite class – so he adopted the principle of intervention

o       meant that the great powers had the right to intervene military in other countries to crush revolutionary movements against legitimate rulers

·        In hopes to form a new balance of power that would keep any one country from dominating Europe, they divided Poland

o       Prussia and Austria were allowed to keep some territory

o       Russia remained in control of the rest

·        Despite being weakened, France was still strong

o       the fear that it could regain powers and upset the European peace remained so strong that they attempted to establish major defense barriers to prevent any possible expansion

Ultimate Success or Ultimate Failure:

·        Borders were a failure, and were returned to those of 1790

·        Established a European order that kept the general piece for about 100 years, but was based on the interests of the elite of Europe

·        Led to the eventual establishment of the Congress system and the subsequent congresses.

·        An integral part in what became known as The Conservative Order in which peace and stability were traded for the liberties and civil rights associated with the French Revolution.